Is Language Innate or Learned?

Is Language Innate or Learned? How do we learn language? Is it an innate ability or do we have to learn language? Can we find an absolute definition for language? These questions has been asked and investigated by many psychologists, but to date I have not been able to find any concrete evidence put forward to support any of the findings. Using the language acquisition theories of Chomsky and Skinner, as a base, I was able to compare of their findings by applying the theories to actual situations to determine the practicality of the results. As a result of making these comparisons, I was able to determine that each theory on its own had limitations, but I believe that if we took aspects of each and made one compilation, it is possible that we could eventually determine whether language is in fact an innate ability or whether it is developed through learning. Language is an innate ability and is not developed through learning To say that language is an innate ability and is not developed through learning, we need to look at the theorist arguments on language acquisition. One theorist argued that language is an innate ability, (Chomsky,1959), another argued that it is acquired by reinforcement and repetition (Skinner, 1957), another argued that it was part of the overall development (Piaget, 1969) and yet another argued that it is learned through interaction (Bruner, 1975). Although each theorist produced differing views on language acquisition, the debate still remains as to whether language is an innate ability or it is learned. I will be focusing on Skinners (1957) Behaviourist Theory and Chomksys (1959) Innate Theory as the base on this paper. Let us first look at the definition of language. Language, as defined by the Websters online dictionary states that it is a systematic means of communicating, by the use of sounds or convectional symbols. The idea is that language is facilitated and understood by the use of structured elements. These elements are not limited to auditory but also encompass the use of convectional symbols. What therefore are convectional symbols? Throughout the evolutionary process, countries have developed their own method of documentation using unique letters or numerals. They have also created signs which have no alphanumeric symbols but effectively communicate necessary information, for example, a single arrow pointing to the left could mean, left turn only or keep left. Similarly the outline of a man or woman on the doors of washrooms communicate the gender allowed to use the washroom. The symbol may have a definitive meaning, but the interpretation of the symbol will determine the appropriate act ion. Another definition found in the Oxford online dictionary, we see where language is defined as the method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and convectional way. It is interesting to note the disparity in the two definitions. Whilst the Websters definition appears generic to any specie, the Oxford definition seems to be specific to communication in humans. Does the Oxford dictionary imply that communication is unique to humans? Based on the research done by the theorists we recongnise that humans talk and all other living species have their own unique method of communicating with each other. It is therefore not appropriate to disregard non-human communication abilities. Looking at the human interaction and how we are able to understand each other, especially as it relates language development in newborn babies, has encouraged many theories. De Villiers J. G. P. A. (1978), in their book, Language Acquisition, the question is asked, What does a child bring into the world with him by way of inherited knowledge or behaviour, and what is the product of the experience? (p.2). It is clear that both genetics and experience play an important part in language development, but the underlying question remains debatable. The arguments continue with Osherson, D. N., Gleitman L. R., Liberman M, (1995) in their book, An Invitation to Cognitive Science: Language, they state that some parts of the capacity to learn language must be innate. At the same time, it is equally clear that language is learned (Gleitman and Newport, chapter 1,p.1) The hierarchy of language, however complex, is influenced by the environment and experiences. In babies we recognise that there is no experience, therefore the development can only be linked or associated with their environment. The direct links that babies have in their early stages are only with their parents or other close family members who interact with them on a daily basis. Babies do not have the capacity to make audible sounds which constitute sentences; however they do have to capacity to make other sounds which can be interpreted as immediate needs or wants. As the child develops, the verbal interaction increases and depending on the appropriateness or the effectiveness of the interaction, the development progress will be determined. This means that how the parent speaks to the child or how often word or sentences are used will determine how quickly the childs language is developed. The comparisons between nature versus nurture have been debated for a long time. The story has been written about the Egyptian King Psammethichus, who in an attempt to determine which race was more ancient, the Egyptian or the Phrygians, took two newborn babies and placed them in isolation. They were kept by themselves in a lonely cottage and no-one was allowed to utter words around them. After two years in isolation the caregiver of the children heard them say the word becos and he eventually reported this to the King. King Psametichus researched the word and found out that the origin of the language was Phrygian for bread. The discovery made the Egyptians yield their position of antiquity and conceded that the Phrygians were more ancient than they were. (Herodotus, De SÃ ©lincourt A., Marincola J. 2003), The Histories). The fact that these children had no verbal interaction at all makes you want to believe that babies are born with some innate ability for language development. Although this story is very old, we can also look at more recent language developments in children who are kept in isolated conditions. Feral children, commonly known as wild children, are children who have been brought up in total isolation. They may have some human contact but they are denied any kind of social interaction with other people. These children have been known to develop their own language as in the case of Genie, who was kept in isolation until she was 13 years old. This is a recent example of language development without guidance. She was not taught to speak and was denied any human interaction whilst in isolation and when she was found and tested (Curtis, 1977), it was discovered that Genie would never be able to master the rules of grammar. Although she had good semantic ability, she could not learn syntax and therefore was not able to form complete sentences. Going back to the theorist arguments, did Genies lack of communicative ability give credence to Skinners (1957) proposal that language can be acquired through a series of habit forming tasks? The experiments he performed were conducted on rats and birds, which were taught to perform various tasks successfully. This theory, known as the Behaviourist Theory, proposes that through repetition and subsequent rewards children learn how to communicate. In his 1957 book, Verbal Behaviour, Skinner argued that language was like any other form of behaviour which is acquired through conditioning. Rewards were given once the appropriate behaviour was achieved. However looking again at feral children, even with repetition and rewards they still were not able to master the rules of grammar. The common diagnosis was that these children had passed the critical period hypothesis, which is the stage before puberty before the brain becomes specialized in it functions. Language functions are assigned to the left brain, however before puberty the language function moves from one side to the next and after puberty this function is assigned to the left brain. Chomsky (1959) published a criticism of this theory. Chomsky believed that a childs brain contained special language learning abilities at birth which enabled them to communicate from birth the Innate Theory. He argued that a child was naturally predisposed to learn a language. This was possible by hearing speech which is interpreted by the brain using its natural ability to apply structures and principles. Chomskys view is that a child is held to be born with the entire set of linguistic universals plus evaluation procedures, built in, and that he somehow uses this set as a grid through which he filters the particular language he happens to hear around him (1968a, p.76). After reading the review it was interesting to note that Chomsky critised Skinner because he used only animals as the test subjects, and as a result the theory was silent on specie restrictions. Ironically, Chomskys innate theory was based on no test subject (human or animal). If we are to accept the innateness of language acquisition then we would have to somehow get into the mind of the child from birth to determine how the brain interpreted the speech it heard. Using the feral children Kamala and Amala, the two Indian girls that were said to be raised by wolves can we apply the innate theory? The missionary who found and adopted them (Singh) tried to rehabilitate them back to their human form. Unfortunately Amala died shortly after being found. Progress was slow and after three years, Kamala had only mastered about a dozen words. The question then is; where does the innate ability surface? Based on the innate theory, these children should have had some ability to understand human language, despite the fact that they were socialized by wolves in the early stages of development. It was several years later that Kamalas vocabulary increased to forty words. Gesell (1940) in his book, Wolf Child and Human Child, stated that Kamalas situation demonstrated just how mentally naked humans are when born and how much we rely on society to shape us. Conclusion After looking at the two theories I am still left to determine which one has more credence than the other. I am almost tempted to conduct my own research, similar to King Psammethichus, the only risk with doing that would be the impending prison time I may have to serve for offences committed against a minor. I am however able to give my opinion on the theories. I do not agree that language acquisition is solely dependent on an innate ability; there must be some learning which takes place during the early developmental stages. Humans may be born with a pre-disposition for language, however there has to be some social interaction that defines the language, grammar and speech. We teach our children language by using a variety of methods, such as visual aids and verbal reinforcements. If we only show them the visual aids, without explaining what they are seeing, they will ultimately create their own description and possibly create their own language. The feral children did not necessarily create their own language, instead they adapted to their environment. In the case of Genie, she had limited human interaction; therefore it is possible that her language development was only based on the few words spoken to her during her isolation. The meals she was served may have just been shoved at her with harsh accompanying words of eat this or here. Applying Skinners theory, the reinforcement may have been the harsh words heard regularly but not enough to develop the syntax needed to form sentences. Here Chomskys theory may have been more appropriate, in that there was some amount of innate understanding of human communication; Genie responded to human speech althou gh she was not taught. In the case of Kamala, who was raised by wolves, the innate theory is not possible. She had to be taught everything as she did not understand anything her adoptive parent said. Skinners theory here is more believable. It was through constant repetition and reinforcement that she was able to develop some kind of vocabulary database to eventually communicate. What is interesting is the length of time it took for her to grasp a dozen words. In a normal three year old child, you will find that they are most communicative and speaking constantly at this age. In conclusion, I believe that the two theories go hand in hand. You cannot have one without the other. We may be born with some amount of innate ability, but it is through repetition and reinforcement that we are able to communicate effectively. The necessary grammar and syntax ability requires practice and this can only be achieved with being taught. It is my opinion that both Skinner and Chomsky were on the right path but they needed to work together to get the language acquisition theory more credence.

Hip Hop Childrenswear

The style express how active they were, and this collection adapted the idea of free, colorful, youthful but still comfortable to wear for children. This collection uses a lot of prints, and bright colors but still looks good on Fall/Winter season for children. Last but not least, I hope this collection can give inspiration and knowledge about the world-changing movement, hip hop. THE BEGINNING OF HIP HOP Hip hop started to began in South Bronx, New York city, around late sass. At that time black (skinned) people that mostly African-American was living as a group of minorities in America.They can't get the same facilities that white people can easily et. One of the story was, black (skinned) kids had to walk to school even their school has a far distance. But, for the white children, they can use the public transportation like buses. Then to express the injustice, they show it through creative ways. One of the hip hop pioneer is DC Cool Here (Clive Campbell). He is one of the people who developed hip hop music before later spread out through the world. Fig 1. DC Cool Here (Clive Campbell), 2008 At that time, hip hop also helped youngsters.Instead of fighting with the street gangs, they spend their time dance battling. Then Africa Bumboat founded the Zulu Nation, it's a confederation of street-dance crews, graffiti artists, and rap musicians. After that, hip hop movement gained more and more media attention, Billboard magazine printing an article titled â€Å"B Beats Bombarding Bronx†, commenting on influential hip hop figures like DC Cool Here. Hip hop still developing, until now, there are female hip hop artists too like Nick Mina] and Queen Latish. They also protesting the graphic hip hop lyrics depicting rape and violence against women.Rap is also a part of hip hop. Rap became a way for artists to spread political and social messages to people who still unaware about the life of African-American people. Fig 2. Africa Bumboat (Kevin Donovan), founder o f Zulu Nation, 2012 Later then, Hip hop started to spread out to the world â€Å"the center of a mega music and fashion industry around the world† that crosses social barriers and cuts across racial lines. 4 HIP HOP INFLUENCE ON FASHION † Hip- hop has become a lifestyle that's no longer Just associated with African- Americans or Latino, it has a global reach. – Task Lewis, Ph. D. '09, assistant professor of fiber science and apparel design in the College of Human Ecology. Hip Hop movement is no longer associated only with one group of people, the hip hop style adapted to the fashion world, where now people can wear tracksuits, sporting gear, oversized T-shirts, overalls and combat boots. In sass, this look was adopted by major fashion labels, becoming part of the mass culture. Also, the hip hop subculture embraced the country club luxuries of more venerable brands, which features not usually marketed to urban youth.In sass, one of the hip hop endorsement in fashi on industry was done by Ideas, which shell shoe get popularized by group Run DMS. Ideas reportedly paid Run DMS $1 million for the deal. From there, hip hop's influence in fashion continued to grow with corporations, and later with hip hop artists creating their own fashion labels. Ideas ads, Run DMS Fig 3. Michael Jordan with Nikkei Air Jordan, 1984 Then in 1984, Michael Jordan and Nikkei collaborated to create the Air Jordan basketball shoe. These shoes would become the most sought-after accessory since the Hermes Firkin.While the price point was high ($100 at the time), it did not stop young men from lining up. Nikkei still sells the Air and releases retro versions of the sneaker that sell out in hours across the globe. 6 Hip hop in early development in clothing was embraced by American designers, Ralph Lauren and Tommy Hellfire. Men would buy clothes a few sizes bigger, adapted the baggy silhouette rappers were known for both on and offstage. Russell Simmons, one of hip hop prod ucer, capitalized on this trend by creating Path Farm clothing, the first hip hop clothing label.This revolutionized the fashion world, and many would follow in his footsteps, including Sean â€Å"Daddy† Combs and rappers Newly and 50 Cent. Path Farm Clothing Fig 4. Russell Simmons, 2013 After that, hip hop style spread out more and more through any part of the world, to he Paris and Tokyo streets. Designers took note of this and began adding a dose of hip hop to high end collections, such as the 1991 Channel collection, where Karl Laagered showed piles of gold Jewelry on models. In sass, many hip hop artists and executives started their own fashion labels and clothing lines.This ready to wear collection is focused on children at their teenage (5-7 years old) whose parents living in upper-middle class. Focusing on parents who want to dress up their children based on unique street style but still comfortable to wear. Children who also fond of fashion and to look different amon g the others. All looks in this collection can be worn daily, at any occasions. In this childlessness project, I have learned that hip hop style which usually worn by adults can also adapted to kids garments.Since its childlessness, all of the garments in this collection use comfortable material and easy to manage. From using the denim fabric, I also learned that many fabric manipulations can be made, such as making pleats from a piece of denim or ripped it. And by using subtle colorful fabric, it give more fun feeling to this collection. Overall, I have improve my knowledge in how to get theme, how to research on the theme and how to realizing my collection room the design stage until finish. BIBLIOGRAPHY Resellers, D. (2012, August 15).

Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare

Biographical information about the author: William Shakespeare, born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England, was an English poet and playwright. Shakespeare was believed to have been educated at the King’s New School in Stratford about a quarter-mile from his home. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway. The ceremony may have been arranged in some haste because six months after the marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter named Susanna.About two years later they had twins, a boy and a girl, and the boy died of unknown causes at the age of 11. It is not known when Shakespeare started writing but several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592. Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford during this time of his career. In 1599 he moved to Southwark while his company constructed the Global Theatre there. After 1610, Shakespeare wrote very few okays before his death on April 23, 1616. Historical information about the period of publicat ion:Queen Elizabeth was in rein during this time period from 1559-1603. She was very fond of Shakespeare and loved his works. The inspiration of the play Twelfth Night was more than likely influenced by the queen wanting a play related to the holiday season. Twelfth Night is a Christian holiday that takes place on the 12th day after Christmas. On this day the roles in society are flipped. Kings and queens dress up as peasants and men and women dress up as each other. At the beginning of the Twelfth Night festival a cake that contains a bean is eaten. The person who finds the bean would be the ruler of the feast. Midnight marks the end of their rule and everything goes back to normal. Characteristics of the genre:A Shakespearean Comedy normally has a happy ending that involves marriages between the unmarried characters. There tends to be a greater emphasis on  situations than characters; there is almost always a clever servant; multiple, intertwining plots; and the main issue in Tw elfth Night, deception among characters. Plot Summary:After a huge storm at sea, a young woman named Viola finds herself washed up on a shore with the ship’s captain. Here she grieves the loss of her twin brother Sebastian who she believes died in the storm. The Captain informs her that they are in Illyria and he helps Viola disguise herself so that she may go to a man named Duke Orsino and become his servant. During this 3 month period Viola, now known as Cesario, has to persuade Lady Olivia, the woman Duke Orsino is in love with, to marry him or at least take some interest. Olivia is also grieving her brother’s death and does not want to see any man that Orsino sends to her.However, she takes a liking to Cesario and falls in love with him. Unfortunately, Cesario (Viola) is now in love with Orsino, who loves Olivia, who loves Cesario. A crazy love triangle. Meanwhile, we meet other people in Olivia’s court such as her uncle Sir Toby Belch; the maid Maria; Tobyà ¢â‚¬â„¢s friend Sir Andrew Aguecheek who is trying to court Olivia; Feste, Olivia’s fool; and Malvolio, the arrogant and self-centered steward of Olivia’s household. Since Malvolio likes to ruin the other’s fun, Maria forges a letter, supposedly from Olivia, to make Malvolio think Olivia is in love with him.Malvolio finds this letter, thinking it is for him, and, wanting to marry Olivia, follows its commands of dressing in yellow stocking, cross-gartering, to smile constantly, and to not explain his actions to no one. Once Olivia sees him behaving so strangely she thinks that he has gone mad. Meanwhile, Sebastian, who we find to still be alive but believes his sister Viola to be dead, arrives in Illyria along with his friend Antonio. Antonio has been taking care for Sebastian since the shipwreck and is passionately (and some think sexually) attached to Sebastian; so much so that he follows him to Orsino’s court, in spite of the fact that he and Orsino are old enemies.Once Sir Andrew sees that Olivia has taken a liking to Cesario he challenges Cesario to a duel. Sir Toby loves to see Sir Andrew make a fool of himself so he encourages Sir Andrew to continue. However, when Sebastian-who looks just like his disguised sister Viola-, appears he ends up fighting Sir Andrew and Sir Toby because they think he is Cesario. Olivia shows up seeing what is going on  and asks Sebastian, who she thinks is Cesario, to marry her. Sebastian is very confused because he has never seen her before but he says that he will go with her to be married because of her wealth and beauty.Meanwhile, Antonia has been arrested and begs Cesario to help him because he thinks Cesario is Sebastian. Viola says she does not know who Antonio is and Antonio is taken away while he says that Sebastian has betrayed him. We soon learn that Malvolio has been locked away in a small dark room and although the group has tormented him throughout his time in there, Sir Toby allows Malvolio to send a letter to Olivia asking to be released. Orsino now decides to go visit Olivia and he brings Viola (still disguised as Cesario) and other men in his court. Olivia states that Cesario is her new husband when in reality it is her brother Sebastian.Orsino is furious but then Sebastian appears and everyone is awestruck. Viola and Sebastian are reunited and Orsino can officially express his love for Viola now that he knows she is a woman. We also figure out that Sir Toby and Maria have been married. Finally, Malvolio shows up and the trick that took place on him is revealed. Malvolio storms off saying he will seek revenge and he leaves everyone else happy and joyful.Describe the author’s style: Shakespeare’s first plays were written in the same style as those who were also writing at that period of time. However, he soon began to use the traditional styles in his own unique way. Most say that Twelfth Night is one a Shakespeare’s most poetical and mu sical plays. This basically means that Shakespeare decided to make some of the major characters sound more like amazing poets than average people. In this case he is using them to make fun of the shallowness of love poetry. An example that demonstrates the style:â€Å" Away before me to sweet beds of flowers: Love-thoughts lie rich when canopied with bowers.† (1.1.4) Memorable Quotations Quotation Significance â€Å"And all is semblative a woman’s part.† Orsino is telling Cesario (Viola) to woo Lady Olivia and he tells him that he is much like a woman and therefore will be more appealing than if he went himself. â€Å"Oh Time, thou must untangle this, not I. It is too hard a knot for me t’ untie!† Viola realizes the love triangle she has gotten herself into and says that only time can fix it. â€Å"I hate ingratitude more in a man Than lying, vainness, babbling, drunkenness, Or any taint of voice whose strong corruption Inhabits our frail blood.â €  Cesario is defending himself against Antonio who is charging Cesario of ingratitude. â€Å"What relish is in this? How runs the stream†¦If if be thus to dream, still let me sleep!† Sebastian is very confused but yet happy about Olivia wanting to marry him. He has never seen her before but she is in love with him. â€Å"Thus the whirligig of time brings in his revenges†Setting Significance of the opening scene Twelfth Night takes place in an imaginary place called Illyria. Illyria also happens to correspond to a place on the Adriatic coast which most Elizabethans knew nothing about and most people from London have never been there. This makes it the perfect location for the mysteries of this play.Viola decided to make a new life in this unfamiliar Dukedom. The same thing that draws her to Illyria, Shakespeare uses that to draw the audience in; the mystery, romance, and dreaminess of far-off places. One strange setting would be when the audience sees the out o f control crew at Olivia’s home and also her weird behavior. Another setting that seemed to be over the top would be Duke Orsino at his home listening to his live band while lying of the couch daydreaming about being in love. In the opening scene the audience meets Duke Orsino and we see that the woman he loves, Lady Olivia, is grieving over the death of her brother therefore she has decided not to get married for another seven years.Orsino, being obsessed with Olivia, wants to just lie around on beds of flowers, listening to music and dreaming of Olivia. This shows the audience of the persistence Orsino has and although he seems to be deeply in love with Olivia he will quickly change his mind. Meanwhile, on the Illyrian sea coast Viola and her twin brother Sebastian are in a shipwreck. Viola was found and rescued but she doesn’t know where her brother is. Although the captain tells Viola that Sebastian may still be alive she does not believe it to be so. In the meanti me, however, she needs to find a way to support herself in Illyria. This leads her to Orsino’s court and thus the beginning of what will soon be a crazy love triangle. SymbolsSignificance of the ending/closing scene A pearl- A token of love; romantic attachmentDarkness of Malvolio’s Prison- insanity; madnessChanges of Clothing- class distinction; power, change in gender During the closing scene everyone finds out that Cesario is really Viola (a female) and that Sebastian is the â€Å"real man† of the family. Olivia finds out that she was in love with a woman but ended up marrying her twin brother on accident. Of course she doesn’t mind because she is happy regardless. Duke Orsino is glad because he can now express the feelings he has been having for Cesario because he is now Viola. Most of Shakespeare’s comedies end in a â€Å"happily ever after† way so he had to find some kind of what to bring happiness to the end of this play. The happines s lies in the marriage of Olivia and  Sebastian, the secret marriage of Sir Toby and Maria, and the marriage of Duke Orsino and Viola. Possible ThemesLove out of Suffering- Despite the happy ending, Shakespeare shows that love can cause pain Uncertainty of Gender- Viola disguising herself as a man; Olivia ends up being in love with a woman, even if she thinks Viola is a man; Orsino comments on Cesario’s beauty, which suggests that he is attracted to Viola even though she is still in disguise.

Evolution Of Gangs And Gang Related Activity Essay

The Evolution of Gangs in the United States Throughout history, divisions and factions have been made amongst people based on race, ethnicity, religion, territory, and several other personal factors. In most cases, people prefer to be within a group of individuals who are similar to them, rather than feel out of place. One of the easiest ways for people to remain attached to their â€Å"own kind† is for them to form special groups and bonds within certain areas, which have since been labeled as gangs. When gangs first originated they were meant to keep certain groups of people linked, because when everyone is dispersed those groups do not have as big of impact on societal functions. However, since then, gangs have changed drastically, in both their purpose and organization. Over the past five centuries, the United States has experienced a dramatic increase in gangs and gang-related activity due to technological advances among other factors, and this increase is not expected to slow down in the near future. Many different definitions for a gang exist, but according to DoSomething.org in their article, â€Å"11 Facts About Gangs,† a gang is defined as, â€Å"A group of people who claim a territory and use it to make money through illegal activities.† However, this is a modern definition of gangs, and it does not necessarily define gangs that existed in early history. Yet, some characteristics of gangs today are similar to characteristics of past gangs. For example, members of a gangShow MoreRelatedGraffiti Essay1124 Words   |  5 Pagesof this simple essay will centre on the controversy surrounding â€Å"graffiti art†Ã¢â‚¬â€is it art or simply vandalism. 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